- describe the characteristics of water and its role in biological systems
- describe how the polarity of the water molecule results in hydrogen bonding
- differentiate among acids, bases, and buffers
- describe the importance of pH to biological systems in the human body
The Cell
- describe the following cell structures and their functions:
- – cell membrane
- – cell wall
- – chloroplast
- – cytoskeleton
- – cytoplasm
- – Golgi bodies
- – lysosomes
- – mitochondria – including cristae and matrix
- – nucleus – including nuclear pore, nucleolus, chromatin, nuclear envelope, and chromosomes
- – ribosomes (polysomes)
- – smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum
- – vacuoles
- – vesicles
- state the balanced chemical equation for cellular respiration
- describe how the following organelles function to compartmentalize the cell and move materials through it:
- – rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
- – vesicles
- – Golgi bodies
- – cell membrane
- identify cell structures depicted in diagrams and electron micrographs
Biochemistry
- demonstrate a knowledge of dehydration synthesis and
- hydrolysis as applied to organic monomers and polymers
- differentiate among carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids with respect to chemical structure
- recognize the following molecules in structural diagrams:
- – adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
- – deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
- – disaccharide
- – glucose
- – glycerol
- – hemoglobin
- – monosaccharide
- – neutral fat
- – phospholipid
- – polysaccharide (starch, glycogen, and cellulose)
- – ribose
- – RNA
- – saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
- – steroids
- recognize the empirical formula of a monosaccharide as CnH2nOn
- list the main functions of carbohydrates
- differentiate among monosaccharides (e.g., glucose), disaccharides (e.g., maltose), and polysaccharides
- differentiate among starch, cellulose, and glycogen with respect to
- – function
- – type of bonding
- – level of branching
- describe the location, structure, and function of the following in the human body:
- – neutral fats
- – steroids
- – phospholipids
- compare saturated and unsaturated fatty acids in terms of molecular structure
- list the major functions of proteins
- draw a generalized amino acid and identify the amine, acid (carboxyl), and R-groups
- identify the peptide bonds in dipeptides and polypeptides
- differentiate among the following levels of protein organization with respect to structure and types of bonding:
- – primary
- – secondary (alpha helix, beta pleated sheet)
- – tertiary
- – quaternary (e.g., hemoglobin)
- name the four nitrogenous bases in ribonucleic acid (RNA) and describe the structure of RNA using the following terms:
- – nucleotide (ribose, phosphate, nitrogenous base, adenine, uracil, cytosine, guanine)
- – linear, single stranded
- – sugar-phosphate backbone
- name the four nitrogenous bases in DNA and describe the structure of DNA using the following terms:
- – nucleotide (deoxyribose, phosphate, nitrogenous base, adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine)
- – complementary base pairing
- – double helix
- – hydrogen bonding
- – sugar-phosphate backbone
- compare the general structural composition of DNA and RNA
- relate the general structure of the ATP molecule to its role as the “energy currency” of cells
Enzymes
- explain the following terms: metabolism, enzyme, substrate, coenzyme, activation energy
- use graphs to identify the role of enzymes in lowering the activation energy of a biochemical reaction
- explain models of enzymatic action (e.g., induced fit)
- differentiate between the roles of enzymes and coenzymes in biochemical reactions q identify the role of vitamins as coenzymes
- apply knowledge of proteins to explain the effects on enzyme activity of pH, temperature, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration, competitive inhibitors, and non-competitive inhibitors including heavy metals
- devise an experiment using the scientific method (e.g., to investigate the activity of enzymes)
Digestion
- identify and give a function for each of the following:
- – mouth
- – tongue
- – teeth
- – salivary glands
- – pharynx
- – epiglottis
- – esophagus
- – cardiac sphincter
- – stomach
- – pyloric sphincter
- – duodenum
- – liver
- – gall bladder
- – pancreas
- – small intestine
- – appendix
- – large intestine (colon)
- – rectum
- – anus
- describe swallowing and peristalsis
- identify the pancreas as the source gland for insulin, and describe the function of insulin in maintaining blood sugar levels
- list at least six major functions of the liver
- explain the role of bile in the emulsification of fats
- describe how the small intestine is specialized for chemical and physical digestion and absorption
- describe the structure of the villus, including mircovilli, and explain the functions of the capillaries and lacteals within it
- describe the functions of anaerobic bacteria in the colon
- relate the following digestive enzymes to their glandular sources and describe the digestive reactions they promote:
- – salivary amylase
- – pancreatic amylase
- – proteases (pepsinogen, pepsin, trypsin)
- – lipase
- – peptidase
- – maltase
- – nuclease
- describe the role of water as a component of digestive juices
- describe the role of sodium bicarbonate in pancreatic juice
- describe the role of hydrochloric acid (HCl) in gastric juice
- describe the role of mucus in gastric juice
- describe the importance of the pH level in various regions of the digestive tract
Cell Membrane
- apply knowledge of organic molecules
- including phospholipids, proteins, glycoproteins, glycolipids, carbohydrates, and cholesterol to explain the structure and function of the fluid-mosaic membrane model
- identify the hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions of the phospholipid bilayer
- explain why the cell membrane is described as “selectively permeable”
- describe passive transport processes including diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated transport
- explain factors that affect the rate of diffusion across a cell membrane (e.g., temperature, size of molecule, charge of molecule, concentration gradient, pressure gradient)
- predict the effects of hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic environments on osmosis in animal cells
- describe active transport processes including active transport, endocytosis (phagocytosis and pinocytosis), and exocytosis
- compare specific transport processes – including diffusion, osmosis, facilitated transport, active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis – in terms of
- – concentration gradient
- – use of channel or carrier protein
- – use of energy
- – types/sizes of molecules transported
- devise an experiment using the scientific method (e.g., to investigate the tonicity of cells)
- differentiate between cells that have a high or low surface area-to-volume ratio
- demonstrate an understanding of the significance of surface area-to-volume ratio in cell size
Excretion
- identify and explain the functions of each of the following:
- – kidney
- – ureter
- – urethra
- – urinary bladder
- – renal cortex
- – renal medulla
- – renal pelvis
- – nephron
- identify and explain the functions of the following components of the nephron:
- – glomerulus
- – Bowman’s capsule
- – afferent and efferent arterioles
- – peritubular capillary network
- – proximal and distal convoluted tubules
- – collecting duct
- – loop of Henle
- describe the production of urine with reference to the following terms:
- – pressure filtration
- – selective reabsorption
- – reabsorption of water following an osmotic gradient
- – tubular excretion
- – metabolic waste (e.g., nitrogenous waste, urea, ammonia)
- describe how the kidneys maintain blood pH
- compare urea and glucose content of blood in the renal artery with that of the renal vein
- identify the source glands for antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and aldosterone
- describe how the hypothalamus, posterior pituitary, ADH, and the nephron achieve homeostasis of water levels in the blood
- describe how the adrenal cortex, aldosterone, and the nephron achieve homeostasis of water and sodium levels in the blood
Nervous System
- identify and give functions for each of the following: dendrite, cell body, axon, axoplasm, and axomembrane
- differentiate among sensory, motor, and interneurons with respect to structure and function
- explain the transmission of a nerve impulse through a neuron, using the following terms:
- – resting and action potential
- – depolarization and repolarization
- – refractory period
- – sodium and potassium gates
- – sodium-potassium pump
- – threshold value
- – “all-or-none” response
- – polarity
- relate the structure of a myelinated nerve fibre to the speed of impulse conduction, with reference to myelin sheath, Schwann cell, node of Ranvier, and saltatory transmission
- identify the major components of a synapse, including
- – synaptic ending
- – presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes
- – synaptic cleft
- – synaptic vesicle
- – calcium ions and contractile proteins
- – excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters (e.g., norepinephrine, acetylcholine – ACh)
- – receptor
- – acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
- explain the process by which impulses travel across a synapse
- describe how neurotransmitters are broken down in the synaptic cleft
- describe the structure of a reflex arc (receptor, sensory neuron, interneuron, motor neuron, and effector) and relate its structure to how it functions compare the locations and functions of the central and peripheral nervous systems
- identify and give functions for each of the following parts of the brain:
- – medulla oblongata
- – cerebrum
- – thalamus
- – cerebellum
- – hypothalamus
- – pituitary gland
- – corpus callosum
- – meninges
- explain how the hypothalamus and pituitary gland interact as the neuroendocrine control centre
- differentiate between the functions of the autonomic and somatic nervous systems
- describe the inter-related functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system, with reference to
- – effect on body functions including heart rate, breathing rate, pupil size, digestion
- – neurotransmitters involved
- – overall response (“fight or flight” or relaxed state)
Circulation
- identify and give functions (including where blood is coming from and going to, as applicable) for each of the following:
- – left and right atria
- – left and right ventricles
- – coronary arteries and veins
- – anterior and posterior vena cava
- – aorta
- – pulmonary arteries and veins
- – pulmonary trunk
- – atrioventricular valves
- – chordae tendineae
- – semi-lunar valves
- – septum
- recognize heart structures using both internal and external diagram views describe the location and functions of the sinoatrial (SA) node, atrioventricular (AV) node, and Purkinje fibres
- describe how the autonomic nervous system increases and decreases heart rate and blood pressure
- differentiate between systolic and diastolic pressures
- describe hypertension and hypotension and their causes
- demonstrate the measurement of blood pressure
- identify and give the function (including where the vessel is carrying blood from and where it is carrying blood to) of each of the following:
- – subclavian arteries and veins
- – jugular veins
- – carotid arteries
- – mesenteric arteries
- – anterior and posterior vena cava
- – pulmonary veins and arteries
- – hepatic vein
- – hepatic portal vein
- – renal arteries and veins
- – iliac arteries and veins
- – coronary arteries and veins
- – aorta
- describe and differentiate among the five types of blood vessels with reference to characteristics such as
- – structure and thickness of vessel walls
- – presence of valves
- – direction of blood flow (toward or away from the heart)
- differentiate between pulmonary and systemic circulation with respect to oxygenation or deoxygenation of blood in the vessels involved
- demonstrate a knowledge of the path of a blood cell from the aorta through the body and back to the left ventricle
- relate blood pressure and blood velocity to the total cross-sectional area of the five types of blood vessels
- describe capillary-tissue fluid exchange
- (omit 2015/16) identify and describe differences in structure and circulation between fetal and adult systems, with reference to umbilical vein and arteries, oval opening, venous duct, arterial duct
- describe the shape, function, and origin of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
- list the major components of plasma
- (omit 2015/16) explain the roles of antigens and antibodies describe the functions of the lymphatic system
- identify and give functions of lymph capillaries, (omit 2015/16) veins, and nodes
Respiration
- identify and give functions for each of the following:
- – nasal cavity
- – pharynx
- – larynx
- – trachea
- – bronchi
- – bronchioles
- – alveoli
- – diaphragm and ribs
- – pleural membranes
- – thoracic cavity
- explain the roles of cilia and mucus in the respiratory tract
- explain the relationship between the structure and function of alveoli
- describe the interactions of the following structures in the breathing process:
- – respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata
- – lungs
- – pleural membranes
- – diaphragm
- – intercostal (rib) muscles
- – stretch receptors
- compare the processes of inhalation and exhalation
- explain the roles of carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions in stimulating the respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata
- explain the roles of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ions in stimulating carotid and aortic bodies
- describe the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen during internal and external respiration, including
- – location of exchange
- – conditions that favour exchange (e.g., pH, temperature)
- explain the roles of oxyhemoglobin, carbaminohemoglobin, reduced hemoglobin, bicarbonate ions, and carbonic anhydrase in the transport of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the blood
- write the chemical equations for internal and external respiration
Reproduction
- identify and give functions for each of the following:
- – testes (seminiferous tubules and interstitial cells)
- – scrotum
- – epididymis
- – ductus (vas) deferens
- – prostate gland
- – Cowper’s glands
- – seminal vesicles
- – penis
- – urethra
- describe the path of sperm from the seminiferous tubules to the urethral opening
- list the components seminal fluid (as contributed by the Cowper’s glands, prostate gland, and seminal vesicles), and describe the functions of each component
- identify the tail (flagellum), midpiece, head, and acrosome of a mature sperm and state their functions
- describe the functions of testosterone
- describe the homeostatic regulation of testosterone levels by the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and testes
- identify and give functions for each of the following:
- – ovaries (follicles and corpus luteum)
- – oviducts (fallopian tubes)
- – uterus
- – endometrium
- – cervix
- – vagina
- – clitoris
- describe the functions of estrogen
- describe the sequence of events in the ovarian cycle, with reference the follicular phase, ovulation, and the luteal phase
- describe the sequence of events in the uterine cycle, with reference to menstruation, the proliferative phase, and the secretory phase
- describe the control of the ovarian and uterine cycles by hormones including gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), estrogen, and progesterone
- describe the hormonal changes that occur as a result of implantation, including
- – production of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) to maintain the corpus luteum
- – increased production of progesterone by the corpus luteum
- describe a positive feedback mechanism involving oxytocin
DNA & Protein Synthesis
- describe the three steps in the semi–conservative replication of DNA:
- – “unzipping” (DNA helicase)
- – complementary base pairing (DNA polymerase)
- – joining of adjacent nucleotides (DNA polymerase)
- describe the purpose of DNA replication
- identify the site of DNA replication within the cell define recombinant DNA
- describe a minimum of three uses for recombinant DNA
- identify the roles of DNA, messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomes in the processes of transcription and translation, including initiation, elongation, and termination
- determine the sequence of amino acids coded for by a specific DNA sequence (genetic code), given a table of mRNA codons
- identify the complementary nature of the mRNA codon and the tRNA anti-codon give examples of two environmental mutagens that can cause mutations in humans
- use examples to explain how mutations in DNA change the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain, and as a result may lead to genetic disorders